The Cosby Show American the Different Sides

The Cosby Show changed the stereotypical roles that were usually handed to black films and movies. Before the Cosby Show there were shows like Sandford & Son and Good Times that portrayed black in poverty. The Cosby Show however focused on issues that pertained to everyone with a focus on black people. They addressed issues such as pregnancy, educatiion, marriage, and even touched on music. The days of poor black in television and movies are gone. Wtaching an episode of the Cosby Show is an inspiration to everyone who sees it. Being able to watch where there is a black family not struggling to pay the rent is rejuvenatihng t6o me. We have a husband who is a doctor and a wife that is an attorney that shows examples of what living in America is like from a educational point of view versus just what a sterotypical black family life would be. The Cosby Show focuses on what it is like to be pregnant and go through labor and delivery pains in dealing with real life situations. The show also focuses on a happy married life and the problems that can arise within a family. I never knew how smooth jazz could be until I had seen an episode of the Cosby Show. Going to college is a dream that most people try to achieve. Until I had watched the Cobsy Show I was never really informed on what it would be like to go to college. I never knew there were prominent black colleges and universities. I think that being able to have a good television show that shows real life examples of life is what helps make this a graet society to live in, the Cosby Show is that show. Once in a while the show highlighted musical guest usually jazz and blues artists. Three was an episode where BB King guest starred and showed America how he helped his guitar â€Å"Lucile†. The Cosby Show is an example of if you put your mind to it you can do anything, and today America knows that.

Analysing the change in the role of the management accountant

This work is focused on critically measuring the doggedness of the alteration in the function of the direction comptroller from traditional accounting maps to that of a strategic contriver and concern spouse. The work of Johnson and Kaplan ( 1987 ) , titled â€Å" Relevance doomed † has prompted a drill-down on this research country. Though most of the research workers agree to the altering function of the direction comptroller ( Burns and Baldvinsdottir, 2005 ; Cooper and Dart 2009 ; Allot 2000 ; Chenhall and Langfield-Smith2007 ; Siegel1999 ; Kerby and Romine 2005 ; Vaivio1999 ; Ittner and Lacker2001 ; Ax and Bjornenak 2007 ; Bhimani 2006 ; Roslender and Hart 2002 ) . The importance the traditional function still remains critical to others, and should function to complement the new techniques or the alteration. ( Bromwich and Bhimani 1998 ; Burns et Al. 1999 ) . Others are of the position that history is still a relevant portion of the hereafter or the altering tendency. ( Fleischman and Funnell 2006 ; Luft 1997 ; Beaman and Richardson2007 ) .The type of organisation every bit good as the direction may besides find the nature of alteration. Yazdifar and Tsamenyi ( 2005 ) . This a lteration does non take the same signifier in organisations, but differs in form. Sulaiman and Mitchell ( 2005 ) . With the present economic miasma, some research workers are even recommending a return to the old ways: the traditional function, ( Baldvinsdottir et al ( 2009 ) . The first subdivision of this work will therefore reexamine these positions presented and seek to pull a comparing between these positions to see if the function of the direction comptroller has really changed and to what extent. This will be done pulling support from literatures. It will instantly be followed with some of the new roles the direction comptroller is taking up in organisations. Thereafter the place of traditional accounting pattern in this new tendency of events will be discussed. This will enable us to cognize where to put the traditional accounting function, whether it has lost its utility and should be wholly cast-off or should function to congratulate the new functions. Following to that, some of the new techniques in direction accounting that organisations are following, the factors that are driving the alteration in function every bit good as their significance to the new function will be discussed. Decisions will so be drawn as to the direction comptroller ‘s functions change.The altering function of the direction comptroller.Johnson and Kaplan ( 1987 ) are deemed to hold set the canvas in this statement with their book titled â€Å" Relevance lost: the rise and autumn of direction accounting. † These strong footings used by them has prompted or necessitated a batch of research work in this way. They argue that the bing signifier of direction accounting lacked the know-how to run into up with the dynamic concern environment. Their statement was supported by mentioning technological promotions, information engineering, every bit good as planetary and domestic competition as grounds doing the bing patterns inadequate. Harmonizing to an article published in the Journal of Accountancy ( Most Companies Want Their Certified public accountant to Be Business Strategists, Survey Says, 1996 ) , much more is now being demanded of the direction comptrollers within organisations. Their occupations are traveling beyond the readying of fiscal statements as accounts and reading are now required of them of the information they provide. The direction comptroller is consequently a â€Å" high-ranking determination support specializer † . Kerby and Romine ( 2005 ) argue that for direction comptrollers to stay a relevant portion of their organisations, there must be a alteration in accent from the traditional accounting patterns which involves the numeration, analysis, reading and presentation of fiscal information. They advocate that the direction comptroller should be versed with cognition about alterations impacting the concern of his organisation and imbibe qualities that would enable them map as fully fledged concern spouses. Smith ( 2007 ) opined that the focal point of the direction comptroller within organisations is now switching to the external environment. That the direction comptroller is no more uniformed of what happens externally to his organisation, He now looks both inwards and outwards. Cooper and Dart ( 2009 ) , give support to this position that, direction comptrollers are traveling from being information suppliers to back uping the determination devising. Siegel ( 1999 ) , noted that direction comptrollers were earlier now non involved in the existent decision-making procedure, but acted in support of the determination shapers and subsequently got informed of facts. But the function of the direction comptroller had changed and greater portion of their clip was being spent as internal advisers or concern analyst within their companies. Like most of the other authors he attributes this altering function to the promotion in engineering which he states has freed the direction comptroller from what he describes as â€Å" mechanical accounting † . He stated that the new function of the direction comptroller now involves a batch of direct contacts with people throughout their organisations, and that they are more involved in determination devising and cross-functional squads. This he termed development from functioning internal clients to being concern spouses.The direction comptroller as strategic contriver and concern spouse.The cardinal message of this work has been on the direction comptroller presuming the function of strategic contriver and concern spouse as opposed to the traditional function of corporate bull and bean counter. The direction comptroller ‘s function has evolved and is determining up into a strategic fiscal contriver and director of information. The direction comptroller is said to be h olding less to make with the everyday accounting pattern. ( Siegel 2000, Cooper and Dart, 2009, Latshaw, A. and Choi, Y. , 2000 ) . New countries of focal point of the direction accountant include the development of fiscal programs, information engineering systems direction, assisting in the formation of concern aims every bit good as monitoring consequences and maintaining up with selling aims. Others are direction and organisation of work force, playing consultative function in operational determinations, programmes and undertakings. ( Feeney and Pierce, 2007 ) . For the direction comptroller to work efficaciously as concern spouse, certain accomplishments must be acquired. This will include the quality of analysing and treating unwritten and numeral informations into meaningful information. This should be buttressed by the ability to work efficaciously in a squad. ( Curruth, 2004 ) As concern spouse, the direction comptroller combines both the traditional function of protecting the assets of the concern with a new function of analysis and engagement in determination devising in the concern disposal. ( Kennedy and Sorensen, 2006 ) . Caron ( 2006 ) , defined stairss that should be taken for the direction comptroller to presume the place of a concern spouse. They include: Acting as operation and cognition expert. He/she should be able to supply best pattern information and strategic accomplishments. Should be able to set to pattern the cognition acquired in developing strategic direction programs. He/she should be able to mobilise the human resources at his disposal. He/she should be able to circulate accounting information efficaciously.Management accounting the place of the traditional function.Although Johnson and Kaplan ( 1987 ) opined that the traditional accounting function of the direction comptroller had lost its value and have argued that it is no more relevant to the dynamism of today ‘s universe, non everyone believe their sentiment is best for direction accounting, and have therefore expressed their reserves. ( Bromich and Bhimani 1989 ; Burns et Al 1999 ; Yazdifar and Tsamenyi 2005 ) . Baldvinsdottir et Al. ( 2009 ) are of the sentiment that a return to the traditional or â€Å" mechanical † accounting methods is of great importance particularly at this period of economic down-turn. They argue that although the ballyhoo about the altering function of the direction comptroller, a batch of the traditional accounting function has comparatively remained the same over several decennaries. Luft ( 1997 ) is of the position that history serves as a platform for understanding the present ; that the oversights of the nowadays could really be alleviated by mentioning back to history. Fleischman and Funnell ( 2006 ) , while holding with Johnson and Kaplan, that it is of import that direction accounting studies provide direction with information that will help them in minimising cost and improved productiveness, argue that although these activities are frontward looking, they have to be based on what they described as â€Å" intimate dependance between the past and future † . They insist this is necessary because of the uncertainnesss and instabilities associated with commercial environments, coupled with the intricatsies of direction. That, direction comptrollers in the class of seeking to do the information they provide more utile to their organisations should bear in head that this should be done in observation of necessary ethical issues. Beaman and Richardson ( 2007 ) found out in their research that accounting patterns within organisations are being confined to the traditional function, alternatively of the expected function of determination support and job resolution. There has been the recognition of the broad usage of traditional accounting techniques in most organisations as opposed to the supposed outlook of radically new advanced accounting techniques being adopted by these organisations. ( Burns and Scapens, 2000 ) .Emerging techniques in direction accounting.Some comparatively new trends/techniques have emerged with the purpose of undertaking the insufficiencies of the traditional accounting methods. Some of them have been lauded as the new title-holders of direction accounting solution suppliers in organisations. ( Cooper and Kaplan, 1991 ) . Although these techniques are extremely praised, their acceptance and execution may non hold been as widely accepted as the ballyhoo associated with them. ( Collier and Gregory, 1995 ; Roslender and Hart, 2003 ) . These techniques include: Activity based costing ( ABC ) ; The coming of ABC has changed the pattern of cost allotment necessitating that direction accountants develop more analytical accomplishment to undertake the complexnesss of apportioning operating expenses to different cost objects utilizing cost drivers. ( Burns and Yazdifar, 2001 ; Byrne and Pierce, 2007 ; Anderson, 1995 ) . ABC made the direction comptroller an indispensable portion of the determination doing procedure by concentrating on pertinent information needed to better steadfast public presentation financially and market wise. ( Kennedy and Affleck-Graves, 2001 ) . Kaplan and Anderson ( 2004 ) nevertheless noted that organisations have abandoned ABC because of its failure to capture the complex nature of their operations, the holds of execution and the cost consequence which are normally excessively expensive. Balanced scorecard ( BSC ) : The balanced scorecard enables the direction comptroller to strategically mensurate public presentation and develop a model for the strategic measuring and direction systems ( Kaplan and Norton, 2007 ) . It changes accent from fiscal facet to encompassing client, internal and every bit good as acquisition and growing factors of organisations. ( Kaplan and Norton, 1996 ) . This has altered the function of the direction accountant puting him strategically as a determination support specializer. ( Latshaw and Choi, 2002 ) . BSCs are adopted by houses for strategic public presentation measuring, but the result of these steps is normally developed to encompass operational scheme, nevertheless it was noted that organisations frequently fail in seeking to set BCS into a peculiar usage ( Wiersma, 2009 ) . Atkinson ( 2006 ) noted that the BSC has been found deficient from empirical consequences of its benefits.Strategic direction accounting:Strategic direction acc ounting ( SMA ) : SMA shifts the focal point of direction comptroller to non-financial factors external to the organisation. ( Simmonds,1981 ) . It demands that the direction comptroller be knowing in subjects like public presentation indexs development, value concatenation analysis every bit good as capacity cost direction. It broadens the range of the direction accountant beyond the house to strategizing for competitory market and chances. ( Whiteley, 1995 ) . SMA requires the direction comptroller as a member of the cross functional squad which his function now embraces to convey to bear relevant information and expertness that will help determination devising. ( Roslender and Hart, 2001 ) . The direction comptroller now addresses the impact of other non-financial activities, the cost place of rivals, and rating of rival merchandises and services. These activities have placed the direction comptroller in the important function of strategic contriver and concern spouse. ( Whiteley , 1995 ; Langfield-Smith, 2008 ) . However, Roslender and Hart ( 2003 ) , noted that what constitutes strategic direction accounting is still non clearly defined. Collier and Gregory, ( 1995 ) opined that the degree of execution of strategic direction accounting may postpone in different economic systems. That is, the economic system determines the scheme and functionality of the direction comptrollers. Enterprise resource planning ( ERP ) : ERP requires the direction comptroller to hold sound cognition that will enable him to supply information that will technically run into the demands of the house. It besides demands that the MA be versed with cognition of concern maps related to production, selling and information engineering. For the direction comptroller to acquire traveling with all these maps, he needs to construct a sound inter-personal and societal accomplishments. ( Barton, 2009 ; Pierce and O'Dea, 2003 ) . It may nevertheless cut down occupations, making unemployment. Enterprise resource planning ( ERP ) : enables the direction comptroller to track â€Å" production by occupation, work centre, and activity † ( Zimmerman, 2009:720 ) . However, respondents to research carried out by Knnerley and Neely ( 2001 ) were non certain the debut of ERP to their organisations had made any noticeable impact.Factors driving the alteration in the function of direction accounting.The utility of direction accounting has come under examination following factors like: mechanization of mill procedures and processs, information engineering, competition, and globalisation, complexness of concern among others. Some of these factors and their significance will be discussed briefly. Information Technology: ( Carruth, 2004 ; Beaman and Richardson, 2007 ) , noted that information engineering has enabled direction comptrollers to take more responsible functions in their organisations. The direction comptroller is now able to salvage clip in his analysis and reading of information. The direction comptroller helps in showing informations in a signifier that makes them relevant and utile for managerial intent. This involves strategizing and being involved in the determination devising procedure. Granlund, M. and Malmi, T. ( 2002 ) It has changed the nature of information and placed determination doing on information provided by the direction comptroller. ( Atkinson et al. 1999 ) . Automation ; requires the direction comptroller to develop more analytical accomplishments and to be able to supply such information that will enable houses take determinations and follow such schemes that will assist them remain in competition. ( Kerremans et al. , 1991 ) . Automation is advantageous in take downing labor cost, but may make occupation losingss. ( Mantripragada and Sweeney, 1981 ) .Other factors:Other noteworthy factors driving the function alteration in direction accounting include ; the accent on quality, rational capital, more client focused organisations, addition in overhead cost, less of direct labor cost, and precedence on environmental and external issues. These factors have helped orient the direction comptroller ‘s function to that of a strategic contriver and a concern spouse. The direction comptroller now takes a more proactive function in cognizing and supplying solutions to strategic issues in his organisation. The issue of competitory concern env ironment which is closely related to globalisation is another major factor impacting the manner direction accounting maps are handled in organisations.DecisionAlthough there have been demands for the alteration in accent on the function of direction comptroller, this alteration has non been absolute. This is because the cost and complexness of using these new techniques have made their acceptance slow. The debut of new techniques in direction accounting and the impact of assorted factors have made the direction comptroller more focussed on non-financial facets of organisations and has widened the range of activities external to the organisation, doing him a utile portion of the determination devising procedure. However recent issues ‘ following the economic downswing has suggested keeping of portion of the traditional function in combination with new techniques might be more utile. ( Balvinsdottir et al. , July/Aug. 2009 ) Furthermore, the importance of these new techniques and the benefit they provide to organisations can non be overemphasized. These new inventions have made the direction comptroller more flexible, a solution supplier and an of import portion of the organisation as concern spouse and strategian, reconstructing relevancy. ( Johnson, 1992 ) . It is notable that though many are the advantages of implementing these new techniques, some organisations still stick to traditional accounting because it is less complex to implement, salvaging clip.

Paper on Leading Intergenerational Groups and Interpersonal Skills for Research

On Leading Intergenerational Groups and Interpersonal Skills for Leaders - Research Paper Example From this point of view, it is rather difficult to evaluate the success of a leader in regard to his ability to lead intergenerational groups. However, there are certain facts that indicate the potentials of a leader to lead successfully such groups. In accordance with Haight and Gibson (2005) the successful leadership of intergenerational groups can be identified through a series of positive outcomes: ‘a) amelioration of suffering, b) overcoming of disability, c) the chance for new experiences of self-fulfillment and so on’ (Haight and Gibson 2005, p.92). The above outcomes are related to the healthcare sector but they can be used as criteria for developing similar assumptions in regard to leadership in other sectors. Hickman (2009) refers to the differences of generations, as these differences are highlighted in the social psychology. Reference is made specifically to the view of Karl Mannheim, a social scientist, who has studied the different responses of generations to various social phenomena. In accordance with Mannheim, people belonging to a particular generation are likely to have common values and attitudes; moreover, ‘people who have born in the time period between two different generations they are likely to incorporate the values and attitudes of both generations’ (Hickman 2009, p.475). ... The management of intergenerational groups can be quite challenging when referring to the state. In fact, it has been proved that the introduction of appropriate policies for addressing the needs of intergenerational groups within a particular state requires the full understanding of each group’s needs, potentials and attitudes. This issue is highlighted in the study of Dannefer (2010). In the above study, emphasis is given on the potential effects of failures in leading intergenerational groups at state level. It is suggested that intergenerational programs would be employed for ensuring that the needs of all the groups are addressed (Dannefer 2010). In accordance with Dannefer (2010) the incorporation of intergenerational programs by state is limited, usually related only to schools and communities, a fact that decreases the benefits of these programmes for a high portion of the population. The use of intergenerational programs as an effective means for leading intergenerati onal groups is also highlighted in the study of Kaplan (1998). It is noted however that these programs can be effective only under the following term: that they are expanded in all sectors, including educational, cultural and economic activities. Moreover, it is suggested that these programs would be developed at different levels of the state, especially the communities (Kaplan 1998). The support of these programs by the state would be a critical term for their success (Kaplan 1998). 2. Interpersonal skills for leaders Different approaches have been used in order to explain the key characteristics of a successful leader. In accordance with the most common view, technical

KingKing and Entrepreneurship in China Assignment

KingKing and Entrepreneurship in China - Assignment Example The only major retailer the firm has targeted is Wal-Mart. KingKing could increase its revenues if it expands its portfolio of major clients to include companies such as Target, Sears, and K-Mart. The third strategy the company can use to expand its US sales is to sell directly to the customers utilizing a web store. In 2010 the size of the US e-commerce marketplace was $153 billion (Plunkett Research). 2. The acquisition of a US manufacturer is a market entry strategy that could help KingKing penetrate the US marketplace. In order to minimize cost the firm should target small to medium size candle manufacturer. In the United States there are over 1,600 candle manufacturers (Manta). Three potential acquisition targets are A&A Custom Illumntns Inc., Abby Candles Inc., and A&B Reminiscents. 3. Another way for the company to penetrate the US marketplace is by opening up its own stores in the United States. This solution is only viable if the company has sufficient variety of products to justify opening up a store. The case study does not provide sufficient information to determine if the firm has sufficient variety of products. There are very few stores in the US dedicated only to selling candles. The solution of opening up a store might not be viable.

How diversity impacts educational efforts and programs within the area Research Paper

How diversity impacts educational efforts and programs within the area of academia - Research Paper Example A nurse is essentially a social person, or he/she might not be able to do justice to the job. Social skills required on the part of a nurse include but are not limited to emotional intelligence, communication skills, and management. In-depth knowledge of diverse cultures enables a nurse to optimize on his/her potential to display these skills in the workplace. Inclusion of diversity in the academic curriculum of nursing acquaints a nurse with the knowledge of the best possible way to deal with a patient coming from a certain background. Diversification of the nursing education is also a need of the hour in that the nursing students have become increasingly non-traditional over the years. Non-traditional means â€Å"aged 25 or older, commutes to school, enrolled part time, is male, is a member of an ethnic or racial minority group, speaks English as a second or additional language, has dependent children, and holds a general equivalency diploma (GED) or has required remedial classes† (Bednarz, Schim, and Doorenbos, 2010). According to the American Association of Colleges of Nursing (AACN), there were about 73 per cent non-traditional nursing students in the undergraduate program as of

Pupils delight in the wealth of opportunities for understanding more Essay

Pupils delight in the wealth of opportunities for understanding more about the world - Essay Example Geography is a subject that investigates the shared interactions amongst human beings and the environment. Therefore, it is correct to say that environmental issues are the subject matter of geography. As a subject, geography looks into the ways in which the natural environment is used in terms of human actions towards the biosphere, atmosphere, lithosphere and hydrosphere. Such actions impact the issues relative to the environment, such as vegetation coverage, land usage, water resources and renewable sources of energy. This paper will examine the significance of history and geography for students in relation to an event such as The London Evacuations during World War II. The most significant learning from the London evacuations that became unavoidable during World War II pertains to improving people’s judgment, which is why many scholars and leaders have held that schooling in the modern world should be primarily historical (Streatfield, 2000). Commenting on the education pr ocess in the newly set up democracy in the US, President Jefferson had correctly remarked that â€Å""the people are the ultimate guardians of their own liberty. History by apprising them of the past will enable them to judge of the future. It will avail them of the experience of other times and other nations; it will qualify them as judges of the actions and designs of men" (Jefferson, 1998, p.121). History does not provide answers to questions that come to our mind but assists us in getting to know how we can make better decisions in the future. After getting to know of the London evacuations during World War II, students realize the hardships faced by people and the blunders that were made in terms of causing immense suffering to millions of people. Such events particularly enlighten students and make them to think as to why they occurred and whether they could be avoided (Krug, 1967). In understanding the shortcomings of becoming party to such destructive happenings, the coming generations will have a clear viewpoint of the sufferings and will never repeat the same mistakes again. In studying the events that led to the Second World War, students are forced to think after growing up that the historical events that led to loss of life and to hardship for majority of the people should not occur again. In this context, enough evidence exists to indicate that there is a common agreement about the working of cognitive psychology. People capable of thinking independently believe that history supports common cultural understandings and dialogue. The London Evacuations during World War II create a need for identity that is vastly related with ideas of mutual cultural understandings. It is also recognized by many that issues of identity are the main concern in psychological studies and it has been found that losing identity leads to loss of the sense and of importance, which is exactly what The London Evacuations during World War II led to. History or memory of the past is of great importance in the creation of individual identity (Mink, 1969). Geography too is equally important in making meaningful contribution towards understanding human experiences relative to the natural environment. A major strength of geography is that it relates to both physical and social sciences. The subject promotes values, skills and cognitive procedures and assists students in

Team based incentives Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Team based incentives - Essay Example The installation projects assigned may have varying degrees of difficulty which can affect achievement of equal goals. Individuals, too, cannot be equally the same. They can be high performers, average or even poor performers. Unless they are all sold on the team concept, each individual may primarily look out only for himself and not for the team as a whole. The team incentive reward would be viewed as unfair if those rewarded are not deemed to be deserving of the reward, as when average performers receive exactly the same reward as high performers. This makes the reward unfair and unjust. Determine what work components will be rewarded for each individual member. This may be individual regular installation (IRI), individual difficult installation (IDI), overall regular installations (ORI), overall difficult installations (ODI). Put a percentage weight on each component. For example, IRI - 35%, IDI - 35%, ORI - 15%, ODI - 15%. This way, high performers shall be rewarded more than average performers but each team member knows that all performance contribute to overall achievement of team goals. Management would have benefited from employee involvement in the initial design an

Apple's Make-vs.-Buy Decision Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Apple's Make-vs.-Buy Decision - Research Paper Example Another appropriate approach for Apple to recruit talent is to hold a job fair in technical schools and universities where there is an abundant supply of fresh and raw talents which Apple can mold according to its company culture. 2. Describe the recruiter traits and behaviors that would lead to the most successful recruiting campaign for Apple. Apple is in a very competitive industry where hiring the best and the brightest is also a competition among the industry players. Having this kind of environment, it is necessary that the recruiter has to have the traits that attract the best and the brightest and represents Apple well as an organization. The critical trait that a recruiter in Apple must have is its high aptitude and learning curve in technology. The best and the brightest employees are also equally discerning about their potential employers and sees the company through its representative- the recruiter. It would then necessary to impress potential recruits that Apple is the company that they could grow professionally when they work for the company. When it comes to behavior, the recruiter does not have to rigid which is typical among HR personnel in the corporate world, but could be casual as long the recruiter knows the job and the industry. Professionalism in the IT industry is gauge not by its appearance but what it can do. Its founder in fact, Steve Jobs was known to be fond of wearing jeans in coming to work. 3. Suggest three (3) ways that Apple can effectively plan for HR resources. Rank in order of cost to implement. a. Institute and strengthen employee retention program Apple should institute and strengthen its employee retention program so that it would not lose them to competition and embark again in a costly effort of recruiting new talents. Just like getting new customers, recruiting employees can also be costly in terms of opportunities lost (Dernovsek, 2008) due to the absence of talents that would do specific task. In short, Apple must f irst arrest any employee turnover before embarking with any recruitment program. b. Hold job fair Job fairs are relatively cost efficient way of recruiting the right talent (Guld, 2007). It has to be conducted in the university campus or onsite to â€Å"capture† the market of potential talents. In addition, the remuneration requirements of these potential employees are not also that costly compared to a seasoned employee because they will be joining the company at an entry pay grade. c. Buy another company While this may be convenient way of having the necessary talent for the company to do the internal manufacture of chips for Apple, it could be expensive and therefore requires careful consideration before making the purchase because it may affect the company’s bottom line if the acquisition proves to be wrong. 4. Discuss the benefits that forecasting provides for Apple. Forecasting talent need and its accompanying cost provides Apple the advantage of foresight. Forec asting places Apple in a unique and better position to prepare now for what is needed in the future so that when the demand rises for their microchips and intend to do it internally, they already have the talent to get it done. Recruiting the necessary talent when the need is already there may be considered too late because there is a gap between the actual need and respond time of the company’

Topic on Dicrimination - Crytically analyse sexual harrasment relating Essay

Topic on Dicrimination - Crytically analyse sexual harrasment relating to women under the 2010 Equality Act - Essay Example This act puts on notice to all people who deal with the group termed as protected individuals, which women are covered. Any organization, business, schools and institutions of higher learning as well as government offices have to be aware of this rule. Disregarding this act can lead to severe penalties and adverse consequences. The equality act 2010 promises to safeguard the rights of women against any form of harassment and it is the responsibility of all institutions having women employees or students to be aware of it, what needs to be done and the possible consequences of disregarding this law. The 2010 Equality Act The equality act 2010 is one of the key milestones the United Kingdom legislatures have achieved in the last few decades. It has come to attention to them that some people in the society are discriminated to some extent. Since they are in the developed and modern world, they should have equal opportunities. Women are discriminated against in so many ways; for example, most of the high ranking jobs are mostly men dominated. Looking at the United Kingdom for example, more than half of United Kingdom populations are women. However, more than 80% of the United Kingdom parliaments in both houses are men.2 Although men maybe capable of passing laws and policies that impact the whole jurisdiction, would it not be better for women to be better represented in the Parliament? This is not any different in the other sectors of the economy. At the same time, women are exposed to a lot of harassment including sexual harassment in their places of work. 3 Women are constantly harassed by men in their work places. The managers and directors may not harass women in their quest for employment but when they get the job, they may be harassed by the male colleagues they get in their new place of work. Some of the highest management officials may be aware about such behaviour but do nothing about it. These findings were important in the inspiration of making the equal ity act 2010. 4 The ideas of equality in the United Kingdom started well back in the 1970s. However, there are some laws and policies made in the 1960s that had an impact in this act for example the commonwealth immigrants’ act in 1962 and the race relations act in 1965. 5The United Kingdom parliament passed the equal pay act in 1970. This was followed by the sexual discrimination act in 1975, the Race relations act in 1976, the disability discrimination act in 1995, the equality act part two in 2006, the Employment Equality (Religion or Belief) Regulations 2003, the Employment Equality (Sexual Orientation) Regulations 2003, the Employment Equality (Age) Regulations 2006 and the Equality Act (Sexual Orientation) Regulations 2007. Despite the passing of these laws and regulations, it seems like the United Kingdom parliament was just but mincing words. Little differences were reported in all the sectors involved in this. Some even went from bad to worse, for example the salarie s disparities between men and women. BBC reported recently that the salary gap between men and women has been increasing recently. That would not be expected even in 1975, after the passing of the equal pay act in 1970 assuming that the five years were used for implementation of the policy. 6 Experts claim that the United Kingdom Parliament has been relaxing in implementation of

Criminal Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 3

Criminal Law - Essay Example istorically, in some areas, property was owned by the monarch and it devolved through feudal land tenure or other feudal systems of loyalty and fealty. Though the Napoleonic code was among the first government acts of modern times to introduce the notion of absolute ownership into statute, protection of personal property rights was present in more feudalist forms in the common law courts of medieval and early modern England. Property – Definition Blacks Law Dictionary states that "in the strict legal sense, [property is] an aggregate of rights which are guaranteed and protected by the government" and that the term "includes not only ownership and possession but also the right of use and enjoyment for lawful purposes." On the contrary, Barrons Law Dictionary classifies property as "ones exclusive right to possess, use, and dispose of a thing" [ . . . ] "as well as the object, benefit, or prerogative which constitutes the subject matter of that right." Divisions Property law can be divided into personal and real property. Real property concerns itself with rights in rem, or relating to land. Personal property concerns itself with rights in personam, or relating to chattels. Using contemporary descriptions, property has been depicted as oscillating between competing models of property as a fact, property as a right, and property as a responsibility. Declared ownership in and of itself is insufficient to constitute property in a legal sense. Rather, the idea of property arises where one can have his/her right to land or chattels respected and enforced by a court of law. Therefore, to possess good title (and thus enforceable rights) on property one must acquire it legitimately, according to the laws of the jurisdiction in which one seeks enforcement. Real property does not just talk of the ownership of property and buildings — it also involves several legal relationships between owners of immovable property (real estate) that are basically conceptual

Women on the Marketing Frontline Essay Example for Free

Women on the Marketing Frontline Essay This is the changing scenario of world, where globalization has an impact on the conscience of world economy. Foreign stakes in Indian Industries opened global avenues for Indian venture. Strategic planning of staffing emerged as the extreme need for the Corporate and industries, to hold the league of competition. In India few years back where every segment of the opportunities were opened only for males. Hence Indian industries tend to be called as male dominated. Today the women of India are on equal status as much as their male counterparts whether that is public or private Sector. As we know some of the sectors / fields had a male dominance but today it is on the equal anvil. Women also have tremendous opportunities in pre male dominated sector i. e. marketing. There are major firms in India opt for women presence in the field of marketing especially Pharma Marketing. Long ago when Tie-walas were the beauty of clinics and hospitals at the outside in waiting queue most earnestly than patients, is now like a shifting paradigm of this job profile in India. Now a day’s responsibility has been taken over by their female counterparts. Doctors might have some relax session after the close hours with the patients. Today it is a common sight to see a lady medical representative (MR) or lady field executive waiting alongside a group of male MRs for her turn to call on a doctor. Likewise, at cycle meetings and product launch meetings, the sight of a lady Product Executive (PE) or lady Product Manager (PM) conducting the meeting is also a familiar sight. But such was not the case two-three decades ago. Traditionally, in 1970s and early 1980s, the Indian pharmaceutical industry, like most other industries, was a male dominated industry. Girls graduating in pharmacy in 1980s were chosen mainly for quality control or packing department, while post-graduate ladies were chosen either in analytical development or formulation development or they ended up teaching at pharmacy colleges. On their part, ladies too, preferred to tread only on the tested paths and hardly dared to experiment with newer career options. In the late 80s wave changed. With more girls opting for pharmacy than boys, a few girls ventured into the unexplored terrains of pharma marketing and sales. Indian companies such as Gufic Laboratories, Unichem and Lupin Laboratories were among the foremost to give ladies a chance in the typical male-dominated jobs such as MRs and PEs. Have women done their new role in pharma marketing and sales? Now we know sky is not the limit for the females as they have been empowered by their own vital thinking, whereas experts have an interesting expression Women tend to opt for a more open environment. However, we notice that companies in general are beginning to hire women, as they prove to be far more committed, added Sanjeev Duggal, MD, NIS Sparta, an organization, which imparts sales training for companies. (Source: internet blog posted on 27 Dec. 2007) Nagpur is witness for projected growth in pharma sector where 1500 Male Representatives earn their bread and 125 female representatives exist comparatively at lower ratio level. Every year 35% male left the jobs from pharma sector. It again gets high on the female part i. e. 60%. Women mainly deprived of maternity benefits which remain matter for concern after marriage according to Shri D. G. Deshpande Secretary- MSMRA (Maharashtra Sales and Medical Representatives Association). On the other hand Shri V. S. Ranade Vice President FMRAI (Federation of Medical Sales Representatives Association of India) put his positive remark on the maternity benefits. Accordingly females are now entitled for these benefits as it was not on the list of companies agenda. This very step have brought radical change and proved helpful for the recruitment of females in the sector. In a detailed discussion with Mr. D. G. Deshpande on the female entrance and presence in the pharma sector, we came to know that their organization is concerned for working hours that should be not more than eight hours. Being a woman, security always comes first after the convenience. It is clear that job for female MRs more secured than it was earlier. It is sure that different motto can be considered while recruiting these charms towards high outcome in business. In a hectic field schedule some can find lovely atmosphere at their field work that might help to increase energy amongst colleagues. Female Representatives are welcomed by Doctors with increased interest at the detailing side of the business by these female MR. Our society even has raised their thumb as the backbone for the profession in women. Dr. Anad Asia generously made his positive statement for the work of female MR. Everyone knows male dominance as prevalent in a sector and even was the identity of the same which initially was the hurdle while Ms. Shital Analkar got selected by one of leading pharma company Cipla Protec. Shital’s family unwillingly gave their consent for the pharma job but gradually they find it more secure and even lucrative. When we thought about business it is competition make every venture more comprehensive. It is spirit get ignited when workplace cheered after the achievements appreciated, if it is crowned by female representatives. Boys even feel the heat if the stance made by a lady MR, which itself spread the sense of competition. Then it is regardless to say this has proved fruitful for organization. Mr. Anup Detharia ASM, Zydus (Cadila) gave concluding word to his responsibilities, sometimes arranged in above manner. Even colleagues expressed their amiable relationship with the female counterparts when had the discussion with Mr.  Akash Wadibhasme MR Zydus (Cadila). To get up to the doctors and made them write specific prescriptions is not an ending task of pharma marketing. After the successful detailing, retailing brings sales outcome. Concluding visit in evening with retailers distributors pave an extra way to meet the demand that created by MRs towards their sales target. It is hazardous when MRs neglect or remain irregular at this point. Once demand come into action it is necessary to be available in market sufficiently. Retailers again found that all irregularities curbed out since the presence of female MR. When drugs are prescribed it should be available with market and once it is available throughout the market it is again to be sold out in time, it is only when visits being carried out regularly. M/s Bakshe Medical and General Stores leading chemist put his expression to back up the ladies force. These female MR are the face of the company and much of what they do and sell on the field; reflect in the companys bottom-line. However, pharma companies spurt like mushrooms. Some flourish. Some vanish. While these charming messengers of life-saving drugs work, sure for their future.

The Incarnation Of Jesus Christ

The Incarnation Of Jesus Christ Introduction The incarnation of Jesus Christ has been a subject of attention from the earliest decades of the formation of the Christian Church. It has not been without its subsequent controversies. Several early councils were convened to address the various issues regarding the Godhead and in particular, the person and nature of Christ. Of these, the fourth great council of Chalcedon established the parameters of the person and nature of Christ in the orthodox view.  [1]  In an attempt to articulate the person and nature of Christ, the German theologian Gottfried Thomasius published a work between 1853 and 1861 entitled: Christi Person und Werk (Christs Person and Work).  [2]  In this essay, Thomasius called attention to the Greek word kenosis found in Philippians 2:7 in demonstrating his theory of the emptying of Christ during the incarnation. Thomasius view of kenosis contributed considerably to the interest in the incarnation principles of Christology. His work became the basis for fu rther studies into what is more commonly called Kenotic theology. This paper will attempt to show that Thomasius view of kenosis is not completely consistent with the formula of Chalcedon and did not adequately comply with the orthodox principles of the incarnation. Development of Systematic Theology As the early church began to grow so did varying opinions as men began to think about the doctrines of scripture in a systematic way. Was Jesus God? First-century Christians saw that the answer was not simple. Nature is not simple, so why then should we expect the Creator of nature be simple?  [3]   Within the first four hundred years of Christianity there arose six major heresies and they all involved an aspect of the person of Christ.  [4]  Then, as now, there are doctrines, which men wrestle with and that still divide themselves over. Even today there are those who would say that some things are too complex to fully understand such as Robertson McQuilkin who said, As we approach the Bible intent on discovering all the truth God intends for us to understand, we should examine our expectations and attitudes, as there are limitations on what is possible.  [5]   Not withstanding, it is the obligation of every Christian to search out the truths of Gods word and to faithfully study it in order to build a competent system of beliefs. With regard to the person and nature of Christ, the words of Millard Erickson ring all the more true when he said, All departures from the orthodox doctrine of the person of Christ are simply variations of one of these [six] heresies. While we may have difficulty specifying exactly the content of this doctrine, full fidelity to teaching of Scripture will carefully avoid each of these distortions.  [6]   The Council of Chalcedon The early councils of the Christian church were ecumenical gatherings of church leaders and scholars who were brought together in order to address the issues that divided the church and sought to set forth declarations that defined the proper understanding of these controversial theological issues that had an impact on the church. Each of the great councils formulated certain dogma about these issues of controversy, which then became the orthodox view of the Christian church. Concerning the first great council of Nicea, Norman Geisler states, The Nicene Creed (A.D. 325) states the uniform belief of all orthodox Christianity that Christ was fully God and fully Man. All heresies regarding Christ deny one or the other of these.  [7]  One of the utmost important issues to the Church was, and rightfully should have been, a proper understanding of the person and nature of Christ. In regard to the council of Chalcedon, which was convened in 451, J. H. Hall wrote: The work of Chalcedon can be understood only in the light of a series of Christological declarations beginning with the Council of Nicea (325). The Nicene Creed declared that Christ is of the same divine substance with the Father, against Arius, who taught that Christ had a beginning and was only of similar substance. The Council of Constantinople (381) both ratified and refined the Nicene Creed, in opposition to continuing Arianism, and declared against Apollinarianism, which stated that Christs human soul had been replaced by the divine Logos. Moreover, Constantinople declared that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father and the Son.  [8]   As questions continued to grow about the nature of Christ in the incarnation, so did controversy. The preceding councils established the churches opinion with regard to the deity of Christ that He is indeed of the same substance as the father. Later questions arose with respect to the human side and divine side of the nature of Christ. The Nestorian view held to a separation of the two natures of Christ as opposed to the Eutychian view, which theorized that Christ had only one nature.  [9]  The Nestorian view was rejected at the council of Ephesus but Eutychianism was later embraced. Seeing the continued discord, Pope Leo I instigated Emperor Marcion to call a new council and it was decided that it would be held in the city of Chalcedon. The Council of Chalcedon achieved three important things. J.H. Hall states, First, it reaffirmed the Nicene tradition; second, it accepted as orthodox the letters of Cyril and Leo; and third, it provided a definition of the faith.  [10]  Hall continues, There existed two overarching concerns- maintenance of the unity of Christs person and establishment of the two natures of Christ.  [11]   The Catechetical Lectures of S. Cyril of Jerusalem attribute a section of Epiphanius, Ancoratus, 118, c. AD 374, as being that which contained the Nicene creed which was read and approved at Chalcedon.  [12]  What Chalcedon effectively achieved was setting forth certain parameters about the nature of Christ. That which is formulated to the understanding of these two natures must therefore fall within these parameters in order to remain orthodox. In setting these parameters of orthodoxy, certain attributes must be maintained. One of the most important issues involves immutability. The Definition of Chalcedon sustained the continued immutability of Christ. The council declaration was as follows: Therefore, following the holy Fathers, we all with one accord teach men to acknowledge one and the same Son, our Lord Jesus Christ, at once complete in Godhead and complete in manhood, truly God and truly man, consisting also of a reasonable soul and body; of one substance with the Father as regards his Godhead, and at the same time of one substance with us as regards his manhood; like us in all respects, apart from sin; as regards his Godhead, begotten of the Father before the ages, but yet as regards his manhood begotten, for us men and for our salvation, of Mary the Virgin, the God-bearer; one and the same Christ, Son, Lord, Only-begotten, recognized in two natures, without confusion, without change, without division, without separation; the distinction of natures being in no way annulled by the union, but rather the characteristics of each nature being preserved and coming together to form one person and subsistence, not as parted or separated into two persons, but one and the sa me son and Only-begotten God the Word, Lord Jesus Christ; even as the prophets from earliest times spoke of him, and our Lord Jesus Christ himself taught us, and the creed of the Fathers has handed down to us.  [13]   The Chalcedonian Creed provided the church with a statement that Christ indeed possessed two distinct natures, both a human side and divine side and that he existed in one person in an unchangeable way.  [14]   Gottfried Thomasiuss view of kenosis In the first part of the 19th century, when Ferdinand Baur became professor of theology at Germanys Tubingen University, he [following in the footsteps of G.W.F. Hegel] began in earnest to attack the historical credibility of the New Testament and in particular the Gospel of John.  [15]  But after a series of textual and archeological finds, Adolf von Harnack, who himself once sympathized with Baur, rejected his assumptions stating in 1897 that, The assumptions of Baurs school, one can almost say, are now wholly abandoned.  [16]  This confrontation sparked by the rise of modern criticism produced many such debates and it serves to illustrate the theological climate within which Gottfried Thomasius and other German theologians wrote. Gottfried Thomasius was a Lutheran theologian who in the mid-eighteen hundreds, attempted to develop an acceptable Christology that could withstand the criticism of his day.  [17]  In an attempt to do so, he published his Christi Person und Werk. David Law states, The first edition of Christi Person und Werk appeared between 1853 and 1861. Because of the criticism leveled at the early volumes of the first edition, Thomasius began revisions for the second edition before all three volumes of the first edition had appeared. The second edition was published between 1856 and 1863. A third and abridged edition, edited after Thomasiuss death by F.J. Winter, was published between 1886 and 1888, but it is the second edition that is regarded as the mature and authoritative statement of Thomasisus kenotic Christology.  [18]   Subsequent publications showed Thomasiuss efforts to expound on his notion of kenosis. David Law states, In Beitrag Thomasius argued that the tensions within Lutheran Christology could be resolved only by reformulating the doctrine of the person of Christ in terms of a self-limitation of the Logos.  [19]  In essence this self-limitation is the idea behind Thomasiuss view of kenosis. Law gives a more defined description of this idea stating, It was above all Thomasiuss contribution to kenotic Christology that established him as a major theologian. The noun kenosis and the adjective kenotic are derived from the use of the term ekenosen in Phil. 2:7, where we read of Christ Jesus who, though he was in the form of God, did not regard equality with God as something to be exploited, but emptied himself [heauton ekenosen], taking the form of a servant, being born in human likeness. On the basis of the use of the term ekenosen in this text, kenosis has come to be used as shorthand for a series of issues arising from the claim that Christ is both truly divine and truly human. How can divinity and humanity coexist in the one, united person of Christ without undermining the integrity of either nature? Kenotic christologies are those christologies which attempt to address this problem by arguing that Christ emptied himself of some aspect of his divine nature in order to become a human being.  [20]   The notion of Christ emptying himself of some aspect of the divine nature in an act of self-limitation has serious significance and questions the immutability of God the Son. This comes into direct contradiction with the statement of Chalcedon in several key areas. First, Chalcedon established that the incarnation of Christ did not change, effect or diminish any attributes of deity Christ had before the incarnation. He is without changeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ã‚  [21]  . Secondly, Chalcedon affirmed the distinction of natures, being no way annulled by the union, but rather the characteristics of each nature, being preserved and coming together to form one person and subsistenceà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.  [22]  The orthodox view is that the incarnation of Christ did not constitute a loss of any aspect of his divine nature, through the act of kenosis or any other such theory. Kenotic Theology Although Thomasiuss influence and that of kenotic Christology in general gave way in Germany in the 1880s to Ritschlianism, kenotic Christology enjoyed a second flowering in Britain.  [23]  In the years following, interest would subside but then unexpectedly grow again as theologians once again reexamine the kenotic theory. In recent years there has been a renewed interest in kenotic Christology (see, for example, Evans, 2006). Any current attempt to formulate a coherent and viable kenotic Christology will need to return to Thomasiuss work, above all to his Christi Person und Werk.  [24]  . In Christian Theology Millard Erickson gives his definition of kenoticism stating, The second Person of the Trinity laid aside his distinctly divine attributes (omnipotence, omnipresence, etc.), and took on human qualities instead.  [25]  In this view, Jesus is not God and man simultaneously, but successively. Kenoticism implies that Jesus is both God and man, just not at the same time.  [26]   Others have thought to develop the position of kenoticism in not such an abrogated way. Instead they incorporate the idea into a more mild form of kenotic theology. In a review of Michael J. Gormans Inhabiting the Cruciform God: Kenosis, Justification, and Theosis in Pauls Narrative Soteriology, Timothy G. Gombis of Cedarville University states, In chapter 1, Gorman develops Pauls master story that demonstrates the kenotic character of Jesus Christ and reveals the very identity of God as kenotic. He focuses on Phil 2:5-11 and argues, based on a thorough exegetical treatment of the passage, that the pattern although [x] not [y] but [z] reveals the narrative trajectory of the kenosis of Jesus. By this, Gorman means although [status] not [selfishness] but [selflessness] (p.16). Jesus Christ had status as God himself but did not exploit this, using it for his own comfort of personal gain. Rather, he pursued several progressively degrading positions on a movement of downward mobility, going eventually to the publicly shameful death on a cross (pp. 16-17). For Gorman, this passage is not properly understood to mean that Christ did this despite the fact that he was in the form of God. Rather, Christ pursued this path because he was in the form of God. In other words, and this is a crucial point for Gorman, Christs being in the form of God is most clearly seen in his self-emptying and self-expenditure (p. 25). In this sense, the very character of God is kenotic (self-emptying) and cruciform (cross-shaped).  [27]   In this passage, the reviewer (Gombis) notes that the author (Gorman) thinks the kenotic passages are not clearly understood. Noting this misrepresentation, he suggests a proper view of kenotic theology. Whether or not Gorman is true in his assumptions remains speculative however it does illustrate the contemporary effort to redefine the implications inherent in kenotic theology. Classical Theology The more classical view of the person and nature of Christ are theologies based more on the Chalcedonian formula and are replete in the theological community. Some theologians have attempted to address the problem of formulating an acceptable understanding of the human and divine nature of Christ always keeping a wary eye upon the parameters of the orthodox or Chalcedonian understanding of the incarnation. From the abstract of Robin Le Poidevins Identity and the composite Christ: an Incarnational delemma, the author states, One way of understanding the reduplicative formula Christ is, qua God, omniscient, but qua man, limited in knowledge is to take the occurrences of the qua locution as picking out different parts of Christ: a divine part and a human part. But this view of Christ as a composite being runs into paradox when combined with the orthodox understanding, adopting a philosophically and theologically contentious perdurantist account of persistence through time, or rejecting altogether the idea of the composite Christ.  [28]   Here the author points out a formula of Christology of the human and divine natures but at the same time, recognizes that it conflicts paradoxically with the Chalcedonian parameters of the incarnation. In this respect, many theologians still show deference to and recognize the importance of the Chalcedonian councils definitive statement. The Chalcedonian parameters have been a staple in guiding theological thought for centuries. George P. Pardington, who was a well-esteemed professor of theology among the Christian Alliance, makes this clear. In his theology primer Outline Studies in Christian Doctrine, He deals with passages in Philippians 2:6,7 and other verses that show the nature of the preexistence of Christ and the incarnations, stating, These and other phrases express ineffable relationships within the Godhead, which we cannot comprehend. On Phil. 2:6 Thayers Greek Lexicon says: Form (Greek, morphe) is that by which a person or thing strikes the vision, the external appearance. There is nothing in this passage, which teaches that the Eternal Word (John 1:1) emptied Himself of either His divine nature of His attributes, but only of the outward visible manifestation of the Godhead. He emptied, stripped Himself, of the insignia of Majesty (Lightfoot). When occasion demanded, He exercised His divine attributes (Moorehead).  [29]   Pardingtons view of the kenotic passages in no way contradicts the Chalcedonian parameters since Christ did not give up any of his divine nature or attributes. Contemporary Debate Roger Olsen has noted that the differing opinions among evangelicals. He states, Kenotic Christology-emphasizing the need to take with utmost seriousness Jesus true humanity, including limited consciousness- has made significant inroads among evangelicals, while other evangelical theologians have resisted and criticized it.  [30]  Olsen continues to describe what he characterizes as a very heated debate among more progressive and conservative Evangelicals stating, As recently as the mid-1990s heresy charges were thrown by conservative evangelicals at more moderate and progressive ones who dared to use the kenotic motif in writing about the incarnation.  [31]   Theologians who reaffirm the Chalcedon formula would be Bernard Ramm and Carl Henry.  [32]  Examples of some who are more outspoken against kenoticism would be Thomas V, Morris, Donald Bloesch, Millard Erickson and Stanley Grenz.  [33]  While Grenz is somewhat critical of kenotic theology, he nevertheless does not espouse the traditional Chalcedon formula either.  [34]  Olsen states, Two evangelical theologians who have attempted to push the frontiers of Christology are Clark Pinnock and Stanley Grenz. Both affirm that Jesus Christ is truly God and truly human, but they are dissatisfied with the classical expression of that belief in Chalcedonian Christology (hypostatic union). They are not so much interested in rejecting it as in supplementing it with new and more helpful thought forms. People today, they argue, are not as tuned as ancient people were to the substance ontologies of Greek metaphysics, and the times call for a new expression of the doctrine of Jesus Christs humanity and divinity.  [35]   While the purpose of this paper is not to critique the various forms of Christology espoused by many theologians among the ranks of evangelicals (and they are many), it is however concerned with the classical Chalcedonian formula of the incarnation, and whether or not kenotic theology adheres to it and why this is important. While there are those who strongly support the Chalcedonian formula, there are others who feel that it is flawed. Roger Olsen notes that both Clark Pinnock and Stanley Grenz are dissatisfied with the classical expression of that belief in Chalcedonian Christology (hypostatic union).  [36]  He once again points to the work of Stanley Grenz to illustrate this stating, Grenz argues in Theology for the Community of God (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2000) that classical Incarnational Christology falls short biblically and logically and revises it using the eschatological ontology (the future as the locus of being) of German theologian Wolfhart Pannenberg. According to Grenz, Jesus Christ is the Logos, who is not to be thought of as preexisting and then descending into human history but as revealing God and therefore belonging to the eternity of God by virtue of his resurrection.  [37]  [Emphasis is Olsens]. Olsen continues with his critique of Grenz showing how it is at variance with classical Christology. This is where the debate becomes relevant to this research with respect to the Chalcedonian formula. Olsen states, The main difference between this Christology and classical Christology [Chalcedonian] lies in its denial of a logos asarkos discarnate or preincarnate Logos or Son of God. For Grenz, Jesus Christ is the Logos, the second person of the Trinity. Whatever tensions or problems may exist in Pinnocks and Grenzs Christology, they are not so much revisions of the hypostatic union as restatements of the basic Christological vision in new terms.  [38]   The abandoning of the basic tenants of the Chalcedonian formula present some extreme difficulties, particularly in light of the doctrine of the Preexistence of Christ which was affirmed at Chalcedon. One of the issues in regard to the nature of Christ concerns his Consciousness. When did Christ come to the realization of who he was? Theologians like Myer Pearlman were more content to leave this question open stating, Just exactly when and how this self-consciousness came must remain a mystery to us. When we think of God coming to us in the form of a man we must reverently exclaim, Great is the mystery of godliness!  [39]  Erickson would say, There were within his person dimensions of experience, knowledge and love not found in human beings. We must recognize that in dealing with Christ, he was more than just a man. He had and maintained all the qualities of a divine nature and a sinless human nature as well.  [40]   Another important issue that must be addressed is that the hypostatic union is permanent and everlasting. What Christ became in the incarnation is what he shall remain eternally (Heb 2:17, 7:24).  [41]  This is a problem for the kenotic view of Christ since that in the kenotic view, according to Erickson.  [42]  Jesus is both God and man, just not at the same time. This would imply a doing away with what Jesus became in the incarnation after his ascension and glorification. Conclusion The question that this research is concerned with may be answered by saying that Gottfried Thomasiuss original view of kenosis is not completely consistent with the formula of Chalcedon and did not adequately comply with the orthodox principles of the incarnation. SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY Bettenson, Henry. Documents of the Christian Church ed. Henry Bettenson and Chris Maunder Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999. Byfield, Ted. ed., The Christians: Their First Two Thousand Years Edmonton: Christian Millennial History Project, 2002. Erickson, Millard J., Christian Theology Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 1998. Geisler, Norman L. When Skeptics Ask: a handbook on Christian Evidences Grand Rapids: Baker Publishing, 2008. Gombis, Timothy G. in review of Inhabiting the Cruciform God: Kenosis, Justification, and Theosis in Pauls Narrative Soteriology, Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society Vol. 52, Is. 4 2009, p. 866. Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity vol.1, The Early Church to the Dawn of the Reformation New York: Harper Collins, 1984. Hall, J.H., Chalcedon, Council of (451), in Evangelical Dictionary of Theology, ed. Walter A. Elwell Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2009. Law, David R. Gottfried Thomasius (1802-1875) in The Blackwell Companion to the Theologians Volume 2, ed. Ian S. Markham Malden: Blackwell Publishing, 2009. Le Poidevin, Robin. Identity and the composite Christ: an Incarnational dilemma, in Religious Studies, Cambridge: Vol. 45, Is. 2 2009, p. 167. McQuilkin, Robertson. Understanding and Applying the Bible Chicago: Moody Press, 1992. Mitchell, Daniel R. The Unity of the Person of Christ, Class lecture, Liberty Baptist Theological Seminary, April 15, 2010. Olsen, Roger E. The Westminster handbook to Evangelical Theology Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 2004. Pardington, George P. Outline Studies in Christian Doctrine Harrisburg: Christian Publications, 1926. Pearlman, Myer. Knowing the Doctrines of the Bible Springfield: Gospel Publishing, 1981.

Bio-mechanical Differences Between Male and Female Runners

Bio-mechanical Differences Between Male and Female Runners BUILT TO RUN:  BIOMECHANICAL DIFFERENCES  BETWEEN MALE AND FEMALE MARATHON RUNNERS Acknowledgements Special thanks are accorded to the following people whose work contributed significantly in developing this essay: Dennis Bramble and Daniel Lieberman whose recent findings established running as an essential factor in the evolution of humans, findings that added an extra measure of interest to, and a context for, the essay; Jolie Holschen for doing such an excellent job of pulling together so much valuable information on the anatomical differences between male and female athletes; and Stephen Seiler for his exploration of gender differences in endurance performance and training. In addition, there were numerous other sources used and for which appreciation is due. Attributions are made to all sources in the References section at the end of the essay. Table of Contents INTRODUCTION 1 Anatomical Differences between Men and Women with Specific Reference to Running 2 Definition of the Term Marathon with Comparison to Other Types of Running 7 Definitions of the Term Biomechanics 8 Application of Biomechanics to Running with Reference to Marathon Runners 10 OBJECTIVE AND SCOPE 12 REVIEW OF EXISTING RESEARCH ON METHODS AND FINDINGS 12 DISCUSSION 19 CONCLUSIONS 22 FURTHER OPPORTUNITIES FOR RESEARCH 22 REFERENCES 24 BUILT TO RUN:  BIOMECHANICAL DIFFERENCES  BETWEEN MALE AND FEMALE MARATHON RUNNERS â€Å"More than by brain size or tool-making ability, the human species was set apart from its ancestors by the ability to jog mile after lung-stabbing mile with greater endurance than any other primate.† INTRODUCTION The introductory quotation (Hotz, 2004) simply, yet vividly, expresses the results of a recent study completed by two American scientists, Dennis Bramble and Daniel Lieberman, and released in the journal Nature (2004). Bramble and Lieberman contend that â€Å"the ability to run long distances was the driving force shaping the modern human anatomy.† Hotz’s characterization of early humans as â€Å"marathon men and women from the tips of their distinctively short toes and long Achilles tendons to the tops of their biomechanically balanced heads† (emphasis added) sets the backdrop for this essay—an exploration of the biomechanical differences between male and female marathon runners. After a few additional historical comments, this essay opens with a presentation of anatomical differences between men and women with specific reference to running then continues with definitions and descriptions of the term marathon, as a form of organized running sport, and definitions for the term biomechanics in preparation for a discussion of how the field of biomechanics is applied to running. With this information as a foundation, the objective and scope will be articulated followed by presentation of previous methods and findings revealed from a search of the literature on the topic of biomechanical differences between male and female marathon runners and closely-related topics. These findings will be discussed and conclusions drawn. Finally, recommendations for further research will be presented. To return briefly to the research findings of Bramble, a paleontologist and biomechanics expert, and Lieberman, a physical anthropologist, to continue setting the backdrop for the essay, Bramble states: â€Å"Running made us human, at least in an anatomical sense. We think running is one of the most transforming events in human history† (Chui, 2004). Endurance running is an activity that is reserved for humans in the primate world and not common in other mammals with the exception of dogs, horses and a few others. Bramble and Lieberman contend that running permitted humans to scavenge and hunt for food over significant distances and that the high protein food they secured was instrumental in developing larger brains (Wilford, 2004). To facilitate running, humans developed several traits including large buttocks with strong muscles which connect the femur to the trunk of the body preventing the body from â€Å"over-balancing with each step.† In addition, â€Å"humans have a lengthy arm-swinging stride† and â€Å"[l]ong ligaments and tendons—including the Achilles tendon—[which] serve as springs that store and release mechanical energy during running.† (Hotz, 2004). Bramble’s reference to today’s running in the evolutionary context he and Lieberman established provides an appropriate introduction to the exploration of the biomechanical differences between male and female marathon runners (Wilford, 2004): â€Å"Today, endurance running is primarily a form of exercise and recreation, but its roots may be as ancient as the origin of the human genus.† Anatomical Differences between Men and Women with Specific Reference to Running The description of anatomical differences between men and women, which is focused on anatomical features that are involved in running, begins with a gender-neutral discussion to establish a foundation for the more gender-specific information. Rossi (2003) emphasizes the complexity of walking, a precursor to running. He writes that half of the 650 muscles and tendons in the human body are involved in what most people consider to be the simple act of walking. He suggests that, in the evolution of the human body, there were â€Å"hundreds of adaptations† that had to take place, adaptations that required â€Å"repositioning of everything in the body† over several million years. Rossi writes: â€Å"The arms, no longer needed for branch swinging, became shorter, the legs longer, the pelvis wider, the shoulders narrower, the neck longer and more slender, the spine changed from C-shape to S-shape. Major changes were required in the hip, knee and ankle joints. Hundreds of muscles, tendons, ligaments and joints gradually shifted in position, size and function. And of course, the new posture and gait required important changes in the size and position of all the organs of the chest and abdomen. Rossi suggests that some of these changes were extremely significant from a biomechanical perspective. For instance, he calls attention to the blood pumping requirement of the upright human form: Daily in each individual, approximately 74,000 quarts of blood must travel through 100,000 miles of blood vessels from the brain to the feet and legs in a circular pattern. Rossi emphasizes the human â€Å"engineering† challenge that was required to design a system that would counteract the effects of gravity in moving blood vertically in this manner. Rossi’s comments are particularly important in the context of the current discourse because they provide some insight into the current state of relevant anatomical features of today’s runners and how those features were derived. The anatomy of humans, unlike that of other living creatures, provides for speed and endurance. The unique characteristics related to running include (Science in Africa, 2005, citing University of Utah Public Relations, 2004): Skull features. These features, which include sweating from the scalp and face, cool the blood. A balanced head. This shape of head with a relatively flat face, small teeth, and short snout moves the center of the mass backward which helps to counter the effects of moving upward and downward during running. A ligament running from the rear of the skill and neck downward to the thoracic vertebrae. This feature serves as a shock absorber that aids the arms and shoulders in counterbalancing the head during running activity. Shoulders â€Å"decoupled† from the head and neck. This feature allows rotation of the body while the head faces forward during running. A tall body. This feature, which includes a narrow trunk, waist and pelvis, provides for increased skin surface allowing for enhanced body cooling and permits the upper and lower body segments to move independently. Short forearms. This feature permits the upper body to act as a counterbalance to the lower body during running activity while reducing the muscle power required for maintaining flexed arms. Large vertebrae and disks. This feature permits the human back to accepted heavier loads when runners impact the ground. Large, strong connection between the pelvis and the spine. This feature supports more stability and shock absorbing capacity during running activity. Large buttocks. This feature, and the muscles that form it, stabilize the body during running activity. The connection of these muscles to the femur prevents the body from pitching forward. Long legs. This feature allows humans to take large strides during running activity. The tendons and ligaments permit the legs to be lighter and less muscular thereby requiring a smaller amount of energy to propel them while running. Large hip, knee, and ankle joint surface areas. These features provide enhanced shock absorption by reducing the impact in any one specific area. Arrangement of bones in the foot. This feature provides for a more rigid foot by creating a stable arch, allowing runners to push off in a more efficient manner and to use ligaments located on the bottom of the feet as springs. Large heel bone, short toes, and a big toe. These features provide for enhanced shock absorption and increased capacity to push off during running activity. With the running-related anatomical features applicable to all humans as a foundation, the focus now turns to the differences in anatomical features between men and women, specifically those features that are involved in running activity. Holschen (2004) writes that, until puberty, males and females are equal in terms of strength, aerobic power, heart size, and weight; they also have similar amounts of body fat. Starting at puberty, according to Holschen (2004), male and female sex hormones begin affecting bone and lean body mass, circulation, and metabolism in different ways. A female typically has a wider pelvis, femoral anteversion (inward twisting of the femur), genu valgum (knees touch but ankles are separated), and external tibial torsion (feet do not line up in a straight manner because of out-toeing from outward rotation of the large calf bone). Center of gravity differences between men and women are minimal, correlating more by body type and height than with gender. (Atwater, 1985, cited in Holschen, 2004). When compared with males, females typically have smaller bones accompanied by smaller articular surfaces. They also have proportionately shorter legs with resulting decreased potential force in certain maneuvers. (Holschen, 2004). At puberty, girls gain both fat and lean muscle mass due to the influence of female hormones; boys lose body fat and add muscle mass due to the influence of male hormones (Holschen, 2004). Women in adulthood have about ten percent more body fat than do their male counterparts (Greydanus, D. and Patel, D., 2002, cited in Holschen, 2004). The basal metabolic rate is approximately ten percent lower in women than in men. The presence of female hormones mandates that women rely more on fat metabolism at any given exercise level when compared to men. In addition, glycogen uptake, storage, and use are increased. (Holschen, 2004, citing Bonekat, H. W. et al., 1987; Dombovy, M. L. et al., 1987; Frankovich, R. J. and Lebrun, C. M., 2000; Nicklas, B. J. et al., 1989; Tarnopolsky, L. J., 1990) Cureton and associates (1988, cited in Holschen, 2004) attribute the differences in muscle strength between men and woman to skeletal and cardiac muscular hypertrophy and muscle mass percentage; they conte nd that muscle mass in men is forty percent compared to twenty-three percent in women. Changes in body composition and circulatory capacity beginning at puberty result in approximately twenty percent higher cardio-respiratory capacity in men. Men also have comparatively higher oxygen-carrying capacity, larger heart and lung mass, a higher stroke volume, and higher maximal cardiac output which result in greater effectiveness in aerobic and anaerobic activities, although training can overcome the inherent differences (Williford, H. N. et al., 1993, cited in Holschen, 2004). The results of the current research point to fundamental anatomical differences between men and woman, differences that largely begin to appear during puberty and which have some bearing on running capability. Definition of the Term Marathon with Comparison to Other Types of Running The term running can be defined as â€Å"[moving] swiftly on foot so that both feet leave the ground during each stride† (American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 2000). The research by Bramble and Lieberman (2004, cited in Nature, 2004), which was presented earlier, seems to indicate that running has been part of human existence since its beginnings and, in fact, contributed significantly to development of human life today. Humans no longer require running for survival, at least in their normal affairs; that is, typically, humans do not have to run from danger or run in pursuit of animals to kill for food. In modern times, running has taken on a new form—competition foot racing. This competition racing can be against oneself to achieve one’s own â€Å"personal best† or with others. Racing against others can take many forms ranging from informal competitions between two young friends racing against one another on a playground to very formal co mpetitions such as those in the quadrennial Olympics. The more formal running competitions are typically classified by the length of the run: 100, 200, 400, 800, 1500, 5000, and 10000 meters as well as marathons (Dollman, 2003). There are many terms that refer to specific forms of foot racing: run, dash, sprint, relay, meet, competitive trial of speed, footrace, and marathon (Webster’s New World Thesaurus, 1997). Of these, the terms dash and sprint are typically used interchangeably to describe â€Å"a short, fast run or race† (Webster’s New World Dictionary, 1988) or â€Å"a short, swift movement† (Webster’s New World Thesaurus, 1997). Organized dashes and sprints are commonly of 50 meters, 100 meters, 200 meters, 50 yards, 100 yards, and 200 yards in length (Webster’s New World Thesaurus, 1997). Marathons are a form of long-distance running, which are on- and off-the-track competitions of more than 3000 meters (Hlus, 1997). Specifically, a marathon is â€Å"a footrace of 42 kilometers, 195 meters (26 miles, 385 yards) run over an open course,† or â€Å"any long-distance or endurance contest† People who compete in marathons are called marathoners (Webs ter’s New World Dictionary, 1998). Physiologically, there is a fundamental difference between a sprint or dash and a marathon. According to Pritchard (1994), â€Å"A sprinter can exert maximum force throughout the run, but this is not possible for longer runs, where propulsive force must be reduced to match energy availability.† Historically, marathons are not new events. According to legend, the name marathon is derived from the Greek city, Marathon, to commemorate Pheidippides’s run from that city to Athens to announce Greek victory over the Persians. The marathon was introduced to the Olympics in 1896 and today’s official distance was established in 1908. (Hlus, 1997; The Columbia Encyclopedia, 2005) Today, in addition to marathon races in the Olympics, many cities throughout the world serve as sites for annual or other periodic marathons (The Columbia Encyclopedia, 2005). A new form of marathon race has recently taken form—the ultramarathon, which is â€Å"any organized footrace extending beyond the standard marathon running distance of 42 kilometers, 195 meters†¦[they] typically begin at 50 kilometers and extend to enormous distances† (Blaikie, n. d.). Standard distances for ultramarathons are 50 and 100 kilometers and 50 and 100 miles (Meyers, 2002) with the longest certified race being the Sri Chinmoy, a 2092 kilometer race held annually in New York (Blaikie, n. d.). Definition of the Term Biomechanics The research produced numerous and varied definitions for the term biomechanics. The following are representative of the findings: â€Å"The study of the mechanics of a living body, especially of the forces exerted by muscles and gravity on the skeletal structure.† (The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 2000). [The] application of mechanical engineering principles and techniques in the field of medicine and surgery, studying natural structures to improve those produced by humans† (The Hutchinson Encyclopedia, 2003). â€Å"[A] science examining the forces acting upon and within a biological structure, and the effects produced by those forces† (The University of Calgary, n. d.). â€Å"[T]he science that deals with forces and their effects, applied to biological systems† (Freivalds, 2004). â€Å"[T]he application of the principles and techniques of mechanics to the human body in motion† (Snowden, 2001). â€Å"Biomechanics is a specific field which evaluates the motion of a living organism†¦and the actions of forces on that organism†¦a combination of several different areas of study [including] anatomy and physiology, kinematics (the study of motion without regard to its causes), kinesiology (the study of human movement) and kinetics (the study of forces acting on a system)† (National Endurance Sports Trainers Association, 2005). In furnishing a definition for biomechanics, the Quintic Consultancy Ltd. (2005) provides some additional insight into the origin and details of the term, stating that the name â€Å"is derived from the Greek bios meaning life and mekhaniki meaning mechanics,† adding that these individual terms are combined to mean â€Å"the mechanics of life forms.† The biomechanics discipline includes research into various life forms including plants, insects, reptiles, birds, fish, humans, and others. Within the human specialty, topics include mechanics â€Å"of bone, tooth, muscle, tendon, ligament, cartilage, skin, prostheses, blood flow, air flow, eye movement, joint movement [and] whole body movement† (The Quintic Consultancy Ltd., 2005). Historically, according to Knudson (2003), the study of human biomechanics has alternated between emphasizing each of its two components—the biological and the mechanical. Atwater (1980, cited in Knudson, 2003) claims that, during the first half of the twentieth century, scholars emphasized medicine and anatomy under the term kinesiology. The distinct field of biomechanics was born from the work of biomechanists in the 1960s and 1970s. From that point the field began to emphasize mechanics over biology. Today, the competing forces to move the discipline either toward a biological emphasis or toward a mechanical emphasis continue (Knudson, 2003). Application of Biomechanics to Running with Reference to Marathon Runners The field of biomechanics, already narrowed in a previous section from consideration of all life forms to only humans for the purpose of this essay, can be focused even further to a sub-field called sports biomechanics (The Quintic Consultancy Ltd., 2005): â€Å"Sports biomechanics uses the scientific methods of mechanics to study the effects of various forces on the sports performer. It is concerned, in particular, with the forces that act on the human neuromusculoskeletal system, velocities, accelerations, torque, momentum, and inertia. It also considers aspects of the behavior of sports implements, footwear and surfaces where these affect athletic performance or injury prevention. Sports biomechanics can be divided up into two sections: performance improvement [and] injury prevention.† The Australian Sports Commission (n. d.) furnishes additional descriptive information on the application of biomechanics to sports, using a term the Commission calls applied sports biomechanics which â€Å"incorporates techniques from physics, human anatomy, mathematics, computing and engineering to analyse technique to prevent injury and improve performance.† The Commission’s division of sports biomechanics into two categories—performance improvement and injury prevention—echoes the classifications offered by The Quintic Consultancy Ltd. Williams (2003) describes how biomechanics can help runner performance, specifically that of the marathoner. Leading into his recommendations, he describes how marathon runners use a simple biomechanical strategy known as â€Å"drafting off another runner† when running into the wind to reduce the adverse effects of air resistance and reduce oxygen consumption for the latter part of the race. He writes: â€Å"The goal of the sport biomechanist is to improve movement efficiency, mainly by maximizing propulsive forces and minimizing resistive forces, and thus provide the athlete with a mechanical edge. Using high-speed cinematography, the biomechanist can analyze a runner’s form and detect problems in running form that may be inefficient, such as overstriding, and that may waste energy. Although most elite and experienced marathoners have developed efficient running styles, even a small improvement in running efficiency may make a significant difference over the duration of a marathon.† In addition to the strategy of â€Å"drafting off another runner,† Williams offers several other â€Å"biomechanical strategies† including selecting the proper sportswear (i.e. uniform and shoes) and optimizing body weight and composition. Thus far the topics of anatomical differences between men and women with specific reference to running; definitions and descriptions of the terms marathon (as an organized, competitive form of running) and biomechanics; and the application of biomechanics to running have been presented and discussed. With this as a foundation, the focus of the discourse now turns to the topic of biomechanical differences between male and female marathon runners and closely-related topics. OBJECTIVE AND SCOPE The objective of this portion of the essay will be to explore the biomechanical differences between male and female marathon runners through a review and analysis of selected literature on the topic and related issues. The scope of the literature review will include marathon running with specific reference to available information on the differences between males and females. Although running of shorter distances (e.g. sprints and dashes) and longer distances (e.g. ultramarathons) as well as other sports activities are excluded from the specific scope of this essay, references will be made to these activities when they related to marathon running. Performance improvement and injury prevention were mentioned as the two primary areas addressed by applied sports biomechanics. Gender-specific issues in each of these areas will be explored briefly as well. REVIEW OF EXISTING RESEARCH ON METHODS AND FINDINGS One researcher who has studied gender differences in endurance performance, including marathon running, is Stephen Seiler (1996) of The Institute for Sport, Agder College in Kristianstad, Norway. He writes: â€Å"Some years ago it was proposed by some that women would actually perform better [than men] at ultra-endurance type activities. This theory has been disproved in the laboratory and in practice.† â€Å"As long as women are women, I don’t think they will surpass men,† states Norways perennial marathon winner Grete Waitz (quoted in Holden, 2004). The anatomical differences between females and their male counterparts, specifically those that affect running, were presented in the introduction. Now an attempt will be made to show that the general anatomical differences between men and women extend to biomechanical differences that affect marathon running performance and injury. Holschen (2004) writes that â€Å"[T]he female athlete remains less well understood and less well studied compared with male athletes, especially in the areas of performance factors, repetitive stress, and acute injuries.† She continues: â€Å"Logical reasons for this include: (a) a limited two-generation span of the high-profile elite female; (b) fewer females involved in coaching, research, and sports medicine; and (c) limited areas of female youth sports historically (gymnastics, swimming, dance).† The reality of Holschen’s findings proved to be true in the current research activity. There were remarkably few available sources on the biomechanics involved in women’s marathon running. Most of the research either applied to males or did not identify the gender. Results from a review of selected research literature will be presented in this section beginning with gender-differentiated research results on running performance. Following this, results of rese arch into the two applied sports biomechanics specialties will be presented with a focus on studies concerning footwear and injuries. Holden (2004) writes about performance in running with special attention to female runners. She quotes physiologist Henrik Larsen of the Copenhagen Muscle Research Centre in explaining women’s marathon performance vis-à  -vis men: â€Å"Women had not developed long distance; that’s why the improvement is much greater on the marathon.† Larsen, who seems to attribute the performance improvements of female marathoners to focused training instead of anatomic factors, claims that â€Å"[w]e don’t see any higher oxidative capacity in women.† Holden also offers comments by exercise physiologist Timothy Noakes of the University of Cape Town, South Africa who agrees with Larsen’s assessment: â€Å"A smaller body frame gives women an edge on endurance†¦but men can run 10% faster even when the difference in body size is controlled for.† Stephen Seiler (1996), who was quoted at the start of this section stating that the proposal that women could perform better in ultra-endurance activities has been disproved, confirms that â€Å"there are some physiological differences between the sexes that impact performance in females independent of age.† He notes that there is a ten percent difference in marathon times between men and women, adding that this difference is the same â€Å"across the distance running performance spectrum.† He attributes this difference, not to a difference in training, but to physiological differences. He studied maximal oxygen consumption, the lactate threshold, and efficiency to analyze the differences between men and women as these factors might affect long-distance running performance: Maximal Oxygen Consumption. There is a 43 percent difference between men and women with men possessing a VO2 max (oxygen-delivering capacity measure) of 3.5 liters per minute and women with a capacity of 2.0 liters per minute. Seiler attributes this in part to male size; men are larger. But, even when size is factored in, male oxygen consumption capacity is still fifteen to twenty percent higher. Males have a greater capacity to deliver oxygen to their muscles and organs. The Lactate Threshold. This is the point at which lactic acid begins to accumulate at higher than normal levels in the blood stream indicating an exercise intensity boundary at which the level of intensity can be maintained over a long period and that which will result in quick fatigue. Seiler does not believe that lactate thresholds are different for men and women as a percentage of their VO2 max. Efficiency. After finding conflicting information comparing the efficiency of males and females—revealing that females are less efficient, more efficient, or the same as males in terms of efficiency—Seiler believes that differences in efficiency do not account for the differences in endurance performance. Seiler concludes with his determination that the ten percent performance difference between men and women in endurance running can be attributed to the first of the three physiological factors he studied—maximal oxygen consumption. Another researcher who explored gender differences in athletics, and especially in endurance events, is Dollman (2003). Citing Shepard (2000), Dollman writes that there is consistent evidence, based on observations, that males possess â€Å"larger measures† of the following (quoted): Heart volume, even when corrected for stature. Haematocrit, which gives males a 13 percent greater oxygen-carrying capacity than females. Plasma volume. Total muscle mass, which means that females perform the same absolute task at a higher percentage of maximum voluntary contraction, with concomitant vascular impedance limiting cardiac ejection and peak cardiac output. In addition, male skeletal muscles may have a higher succinate dehydrogenase (an integral membrane protein) concentration (Dollman, 2003, citing Costill, et al., 1987). Males may produce better mechanical efficiency during running (Dollman, 2003, citing Miura, 1997) although this is arguable as it may be rooted in cultural origins (Dollman, 2003, citing Shepard, 2000). Now attention will turn briefly to a review of selected research into the two primary application areas addressed by applied sports biomechanics: running performance and injuries. Regarding performance, footwear will be discussed followed by a presentation of selected findings on research into injuries. Gender issues will be introduced. Lipsky (2001, citing Hennig, 2001) presented research findings on gender-specific requirements for athletic footwear designed for running. The research experiment involved fifteen women and seventeen men of the same body weights, heights, and ages. Each subject wore the same shoe size and each tested five types of shoes which included three styles of men’s shoes and two styles for women. Using â€Å"Kistler† force platforms at a set velocity, ground force reactions, tibial acceleration, angular foot motion, and plantar pressures at eight strategic locations on the foot were measured. Accordin